Three experiments investigated the conditions under which redundant verbal information would facilitate a listener's performance. Kindergarteners, first graders, and fourth graders were asked to select which of several groups of pictures a message (either redundant or constructive) described. Verbal redundancy was found to facilitate only older…

When first, fourth, and fifth grade speakers played a referential communication game with a fictitious listener, they were more likely to give redundant messages to listeners with whom they had no common shared experience or to strangers than to listeners with whom they had shared a previous experience. (RH)