Neanderthals, those long-lost cousins of modern humans, will not remain lost for long, at least from the prying eyes of geneticists. Two teams of scientists announced that for the first time they had analyzed DNA from the nuclei of cells preserved in 37,000-year-old Neanderthal fossils. That, they say, lays the groundwork for determining the entire sequence of the Neanderthal genome within the next two years. Because Neanderthals, who disappeared 28,000 years ago, are the closest relatives of modern humans, obtaining the genetic blueprint for those extinct people could reveal important clues about how the human species evolved. The genetic evidence could also solve mysteries that have plagued anthropologists since the first Neanderthal skeleton was found 150 years ago: namely, what did the ancient people look like, could they speak, and why did they ultimately vanish? This article discusses how the DNA sequences will profoundly alter studies of the enigmatic ancient people regarding their biology and things that could never be learned from the bones and the artifacts.