The effects of literacy and livelihood programs on female learners' participation in literacy were examined through case studies of groups of women who participated in four literacy and income-earning projects in Kenya. Data were collected through focus group discussions and a questionnaire. The four programs were started between 1968 and 1999 and included between 24 and 300 participants. All four programs offered different mixes of literacy components (mathematics, Kiswahili, mother tongue, reading, writing, nutrition and English) and livelihood components (handicraft, tailoring and dressmaking, business education, and handicraft marketing). The designs and delivery systems of all four groups featured close links between the uses of literacy and effective performance of livelihood activities. In all cases, the women stated that their effectiveness would have been constrained without literacy. The combination of literacy and livelihood components was credited with improving the women's income-earning effectiveness, increasing their self-esteem, changing their perceptions of the stereotypical roles of women, and helping them develop a strong sense of community. The case studies confirmed the need to reconsider the objectives of literacy in light of learners' changing needs and circumstances and documented the strong connection between linking literacy program objectives to learners' basic needs and rights and program success. (MN)