Perhaps more than any question other than "How much time should students spend doing homework?" parents and educators want to know, "What kinds of homework assignments are most effective?" Clearly, the answers to this question vary according to many factors, especially the developmental level of students and the topic area. Generally, answers are…

The authors describe the relative benefits of conducting meta-analyses with (a) individual participant data (IPD) gathered from the constituent studies and (b) aggregated data (AD), or the group-level statistics (in particular, effect sizes) that appear in reports of a study's results. Given that both IPD and AD are equally available,…

This investigation examined the effects of providing choices among homework assignments on motivation and subsequent academic performance. Students were randomly assigned within classrooms either to receive a choice of homework options or to be assigned an option for all homework in one instructional unit. Conditions were reversed for a second…

Attention has been directed toward extended school time as a measure to improve academic achievement. The school year and day length have varied over time and across localities depending on the particular needs of the community. Proponents argue that extending time will have learning and non-academic benefits. Opponents suggest increased time is…

A meta-analysis of 41 studies examined the effect of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes in a variety of settings with both child and adult samples. Results indicated that providing choice enhanced intrinsic motivation, effort, task performance, and perceived competence, among other outcomes. Moderator tests revealed the effect…

Inferences made in integrative research reviews are as important to the validity of behavioral science knowledge as are those in primary research. The research review is conceptualized as a scientific inquiry involving five stages paralleling those of primary research. Problem formulation is the stage when variables are defined conceptually and…

Homework probably involves the complex interaction of more influences than any other instructional device. Because of differing home environments, homework fails as the great equalizer. Homework's value is also influenced by student characteristics, subject matter, and especially grade level. Guidelines and recommendations are provided. Includes…

Homework substantially affects high-school students' achievement, benefits junior-high kids only half as much, and elementary kids negligibly. Homework can be an effective teaching tool when districts, schools, and teachers flex and coordinate their policies, stress developmentally appropriate assignments, and try alternatives to homework.…

It is common for students to have difficulty completing homework in a timely and accurate manner. Many school districts and organizations offer homework hotlines to help students complete assignments. However, educators lack a clear description of what is necessary to establish and maintain an effective hotline. This article addresses four issues…

In this article, research conducted in the United States since 1987 on the effects of homework is summarized. Studies are grouped into four research designs. The authors found that all studies, regardless of type, had design flaws. However, both within and across design types, there was generally consistent evidence for a positive influence of…

There has been extensive debate among scholars and practitioners concerning whether self-beliefs influence academic achievement. To address this question, findings of longitudinal studies investigating the relation between self-beliefs and achievement were synthesized using meta-analysis. Estimated effects are consistent with a small, favorable…