Recent technology advances have enabled the collection of keystroke logs during writing, a non-intrusive approach to collecting writing process data that could provide insights into writers' editing and revising behaviors in the writing process. Using keystroke logs from 761 middle school students in the US, this study investigated the association…

The "Common European Framework of Reference" (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001) provides a competency model that is increasingly used as a point of reference to compare language examinations. Nevertheless, aligning examinations to the CEFR proficiency levels remains a challenge. In this article, we propose a new, level-centered approach to…

When testing English language learners (ELLs) in subject matter areas, construct irrelevant variance could result from English, the language in which the test is presented. Differential item functioning (DIF) techniques have been used to determine if items are operating differently for population subgroups and might therefore be appropriate for…