The doctorate, as a ritualised form of evaluation, has existed for more than eight centuries--initially linked to Western medieval forms of knowledge production framed by religion, and to the professional training of lawyers and doctors. It nearly disappeared at the end of the modern era. Recast as a requirement for academic professions, it…

Although there is a tendency to develop policy plans on adult education at a European level, there are still large differences between the various EU countries. These national policy contexts depend on historical, cultural, economic and political factors and can have a profound impact on the way adult education is shaped and developed within a…

This article reflects the 17 years of experience of the "Entreculturas project" in Portugal, where the "Learning to live together" dimension has played a central role. It questions how intercultural education and training can contribute to promote and model an intercultural citizenship societal project and looks back at the…

The historical and present relationship of church and state in Irish education and the educational policies of the churches and the responses of the political system are examined. Some policy issues are analyzed to illustrate the educational policy process and the place of churches in it. (MSE)

Contemporary Dutch educational policies and the role of the private (church-related school) sector in educational policy formation are examined within the context of the system's history and recent administrative change and legislation. (MSE)

The decade of 1975-85 is characterized as a time of consolidation and qualitative change in European higher education, including growth in managerial control, budgetary change, changes in patterns of academic power and institutional leadership, altered perceptions of the university in government policymaking, and increased questions about the…

The impact of a shift in Swedish government from the Social Democratic Party to a conservative/liberal coalition in 1976 on higher education policy is examined. Characteristic features of the political processes and policy developments in Swedish higher education during this period are discussed. (BH)

Examines reasons behind 1980s separation of higher and vocational education sectors in Finland and the directions of recent policy controlling student flow. Looks at the changing student market and student expectations about the practical versus theoretical orientations of the two sectors. Argues that the "different but equal" policy is…

In Greece, universities do not have great autonomy. Areas of responsibility and authority of the state and the institutions are not clearly defined. Universities are always under the political supervision of the ministries of education. (MSE)

A discussion of environmental education in elementary, secondary, and higher education in Spain chronicles its history since 1970, the roles of public and private agencies in educational change, research initiatives, the effects of 1990 educational reforms, trends in facilities available for environmental education, program evaluation, and…

Greece was late to incorporate environmental education into its education system. Experience has been largely with experimental programs and some teacher education. A 1990 law mandates integration of environmental education into the curricula, and cooperation between governmental and nongovernmental agencies has begun. The complex and traditional…

This historical review concludes that, for the last decade, Danish education policies have been influenced by a minority conservative coalition government and in important ways, have been inspired by British and U.S. policy. This has included demand for user input into instruction, increased institutional autonomy, and evaluation of teaching to…

The function and activities of the European Institute of Education since its inception in 1944 are examined, particularly as reflected in a number of specific programs and international conferences. Topics discussed include educational audits and surveys of education system development, language and cultural education programs, vocational…