Presents an overview of the development of outdoor education in Scotland, including geophysical, historical, political, and social influences on attitudes toward outdoor recreation and education; Scottish theoretical perspectives on outdoor education; and the changing pattern of provision, from public provision in schools to greater involvement of…

The novelty and challenge of the wilderness, often cited as the basis for growth, can also precipitate emotional crises. Leaders should help the participant restore equilibrium through empathic listening and emotional support. If that fails, a model is presented for inhibiting the escalation of aggression or violence. Defusing and debriefing after…

A review of research in cognitive and social psychology reveals the importance of situation assessment in the development of decision-making expertise. A naturalistic training model is presented for outdoor leaders that includes training for ill-structured problems, a heavy workload, time stress, and high stakes, as well as multiple players and…

During the late 1940s and much of the 1950s, attitudes towards outdoor education in Scotland were rooted in militaristic concerns with character building through adventure training and civic activities. During the late 1950s and the 1960s, the purposes of the field were seen as recreation, leisure education, personal and social development, and…

A study examined why students participate in outdoor activities. Questionnaires completed by 108 college freshmen aged 18-26 at the University of Transylvania (Romania) were supplemented with participant observation and conversations. Five motivational themes were identified: enjoyment and fun, meeting new friends, enjoying nature, escaping from…

A study exploring how women interpret adventure interviewed 42 women aged 30-86 from 6 countries who had participated in adventure recreation. Adventure for these women incorporated risk and physical challenge, but also a sense of newness, learning, personal development, and creativity. Implications for the adventure industry are discussed.…

Participant observation and in-depth interviews explored how 10 New Zealand male secondary students, aged 17-19, made meaning from their outdoor educational experiences. Qualitative methodology was indispensable in revealing how learning through adventure not only improved self-concept (a conventional assessment), but also contributed to…

A survey of 782 older adults participating in "active outdoor" Elderhostel programs found the following important motivations for participating: being in a natural environment, being physically active, learning about outdoor skills and the environment, and being with people with similar interests. Recommendations are offered for program design and…

All 41 young adults who finished a 22-day Australian Outward Bound program showed large positive changes in resilience scores. Perceived social support was strongly related to resilience gains, with ratings of the least supportive group member being the best predictor. Recommendations concerning group process are offered to group leaders.…

A historical review of outdoor education in the United Kingdom discusses early objectives of preparing young men for war, improving physical health and moral character, and preventing juvenile delinquency; girls' outdoor courses of the 1950s that emphasized hygiene, homemaking, and child care skills; and outdoor education's reflection of sex-role…

Interviews with facilitators of eight Outward Bound Belgium programs examined the tacit knowledge that guides their program facilitation. Findings focus on experiential learning as a process of developing awareness of one's own behaviors, group development as a condition for learning, and program facilitation as enactment of a theory of relational…

Experiential learning can be understood as a process in which learners recognize and develop their "action-theory." The aim of outdoor development programs--whether mainstream education, corporate training, or therapy--is to facilitate this process. A "reflection-in-action" approach to facilitation is presented and situated in a wider range of…

Highlights theories and concepts concerning gender and gender relations in modern society, applying some of these perspectives to outdoor education and adventure recreation. Argues that the more recent interactionist theories and cultural studies offer less deterministic and more insightful approaches to exploring people's outdoor and adventure…

A study evaluated changes in an outdoor leader's anxiety during an 8-day residential adventure program for physical education majors in England. Analysis of variations in the leader's self-confidence found higher cognitive and somatic anxiety before group activities in the morning and last thing at night. Anxiety increased and self-confidence…

Documents the experiences of a deafblind adult during two holidays in which he experienced various outdoor activities. Discusses the nature of deafblindness, reviews relevant literature on outdoor activities for people with special needs, and points out the value of video technology as a research tool when working with people with multisensory…