While the media is not directly responsible for establishing bigoted attitudes and prejudices, movies, television, radio, and print have reinforced racial prejudice and perpetuated the negative images and stereotypes of blacks in this country. Movies as early as 1902 reflect many of the early black stereotypes: the black male is stupid and lazy, obliging and obedient, or sexually aggressive and destructive, while the black female is "mammy," a matriarch, ingenue, seductress, or more recently, "tough mamma." Racial stereotypes and inequality in radio and television programing are reflected in the following: low employment ratio for blacks in these fields, scanty representation of the black viewpoint, lack of multi-dimensional black characterization, and the absence of ethnicity in program content. Mainstream newspapers, magazines, and advertising reflect low press coverage for blacks; when blacks are included, the tendency is to reinforce negative stereotypes, particularly in advertising. In addition, the American standard of beauty (blue eyed, blonde) and the behavioral role conveyed for women is detrimental to the black self-image. Attempts at media reform have included the establishment of a black press and movie industry, the push for affirmative action, citizen action groups, and black media ownership. (MAI)