Following independence in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1960s, traditional integration strategies produced disappointing results in most instances, as they started with very modest levels of intra-regional trade, marked differences in income and industrialisation levels and diffuse fiscal weakness. They also had a strong protectionist bias, trying to widen to multiple countries the same import-substitution policies that failed at the domestic level. Nonetheless, even in the more liberal policy environment of the 21st century, a revival of integration agreements focused on trade and factors of production is unlikely to boost intra-African trade significantly. The current specialisation pattern of sub-Saharan Africa is hardly conducive to increased regional trade. On the other hand, co-operation initiatives that encompass selected policy harmonisation or joint infrastructure projects are needed to improve access to world markets, increase capital flows and stimulate economic exchanges between African countries. At any rate, political leadership is crucial to overcome deep-rooted resistance and scepticism and the international community should support efforts by reform-minded policy makers. A list of research papers prepared for the project "New Forms of Integration and Co-operation in Emerging Africa" is provided in an annex. A bibliography is included. (Contains 21 notes and 6 tables.)